Disorders of Coagulation & Thromboembolism

Disorders of Coagulation & Thromboembolism ORDER NOW FOR CUSTOMIZED AND ORIGINAL ESSAY PAPERS ON Disorders of Coagulation & Thromboembolism For this assignment you will be able to create an infographic or video presentation. Disorders of Coagulation & Thromboembolism 1. Select one of the topics below. Disorders of Coagulation, (Chapter 21, p. 544) 2. Explore the topic and gather the information needed to teach your fellow learners. 3. Please create these items using infographics ( Canva.com ) or video ( Powtoon.com ). If you would like to use a different media source, please email your Instructor first for permission. attachment_1 Understanding Pathophysiology FRST CANADIAN EDITION Mohamed Toufic El-Hussein, RN, PhD Associate Professor, School of Nursing Faculty of Health, Community & Education Mount Royal University Calgary, Alberta Kelly Power-Kean, MHS, NP, RN Center for Nursing Studies Memorial University St. John’s, Newfoundland Stephanie Zettel, BN, MN Associate Professor 2 School of Nursing and Midwifery Mount Royal University Calgary, Alberta U.S. AUTHORS Sue E. Huether, MS, PhD Professor Emeritus College of Nursing University of Utah Salt Lake City, Utah Kathryn L. McCance, MS, PhD Professor Emeritus College of Nursing University of Utah Salt Lake City, Utah U.S. Section Editors Valentina L. Brashers, MD Professor of Nursing and Woodard Clinical Scholar Attending Physician in Internal Medicine University of Virginia Health System Charlottesville, Virginia Neal S. Rote, PhD Academic Vice-Chair and Director of Research Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology University Hospitals Case Medical Center William H. Weir, MD, Professor of Reproductive Biology and Pathology Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine 3 Cleveland, Ohio 4 Table of Contents Cover image Title Page Health Promotion Boxes Copyright Reviewers Contributors Preface Organization and Content Features to Promote Learning Art Program Teaching/Learning Package Acknowledgments Introduction to Pathophysiology 5 Part One Basic Concepts of Pathophysiology Unit 1 The Cell 1 Cellular Biology Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes Cellular Functions Structure and Function of Cellular Components Cell-to-Cell Adhesions Cellular Communication and Signal Transduction Cellular Metabolism Membrane Transport: Cellular Intake and Output Cellular Reproduction: The Cell Cycle Tissues Did You Understand? Key Terms References 2 Genes and Genetic Diseases DNA, RNA, and Proteins: Heredity at the Molecular Level Chromosomes Elements of Formal Genetics Transmission of Genetic Diseases Linkage Analysis and Gene Mapping Multifactorial Inheritance 6 Did You Understand? Key Terms References 3 Epigenetics and Disease Epigenetic Mechanisms Epigenetics and Human Development Genomic Imprinting Inheritance of Epigenetic States Epigenetics and Cancer Future Directions Did You Understand? Key Terms References 4 Altered Cellular and Tissue Biology Cellular Adaptation Cellular Injury Manifestations of Cellular Injury: Accumulations Cellular Death Aging and Altered Cellular and Tissue Biology Somatic Death Did You Understand? Key Terms References 7 5 Fluids and Electrolytes, Acids and Bases Distribution of Body Fluids and Electrolytes Alterations in Water Movement Sodium, Chloride, and Water Balance Alterations in Sodium, Chloride, and Water Balance Alterations in Potassium and Other Electrolytes Acid-Base Balance Pediatric Considerations Geriatric Considerations Did You Understand? Key Terms References Unit 2 Mechanisms of Self-Defence 6 Innate Immunity Human Defence Mechanisms Disorders of Coagulation & Thromboembolism Acute and Chronic Inflammation Wound Healing Pediatric Considerations Geriatric Considerations Did You Understand? Key Terms References 8 7 Adaptive Immunity Third Line of Defence: Adaptive Immunity Antigens and Immunogens Antibodies Immune Response: Collaboration of B Cells and T Cells Cell-Mediated Immunity Pediatric Considerations Geriatric Considerations Did You Understand? Key Terms References 8 Infection and Defects in Mechanisms of Defence Infection Deficiencies in Immunity Hypersensitivity: Allergy, Autoimmunity, and Alloimmunity Did You Understand? Key Terms References 9 Stress and Disease Historical Background and General Concepts The Stress Response Stress, Personality, Coping, and Illness Geriatric Considerations 9 Did You Understand? Key Terms References Unit 3 Cellular Proliferation: Cancer 10 Biology of Cancer Cancer Terminology and Characteristics The Biology of Cancer Cells Clinical Manifestations of Cancer Diagnosis, Characterization, and Treatment of Cancer Did You Understand? Key Terms References 11 Cancer Epidemiology Genetics, Epigenetics, and Tissue Incidence and Mortality Trends In Utero and Early Life Conditions Environmental and Lifestyle Factors Did You Understand? Key Terms References 12 Cancer in Children and Adolescents 10 Incidence, Etiology, and Types of Childhood Cancer Prognosis Did You Understand? Key Terms References Part Two Body Systems and Diseases Unit 4 The Neurological System 13 Structure and Function of the Neurological System Overview and Organization of the Nervous System Cells of the Nervous System The Nerve Impulse The Central Nervous System The Peripheral Nervous System The Autonomic Nervous System Geriatric Considerations Did You Understand? Key Terms References 14 Pain, Temperature, Sleep, and Sensory Function Pain Temperature Regulation Sleep 11 The Special Senses Somatosensory Function Geriatric Considerations Geriatric Considerations Geriatric Considerations Did You Understand? Key Terms References 15 Alterations in Cognitive Systems, Cerebral Hemodynamics, and Motor Function Alterations in Cognitive Systems Alterations in Cerebral Hemodynamics Alterations in Neuromotor Function Alterations in Complex Motor Performance Extrapyramidal Motor Syndromes Did You Understand? Key Terms References 16 Disorders of the Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems and Neuromuscular Junction Central Nervous System Disorders Peripheral Nervous System and Neuromuscular Junction Disorders Tumours of the Central Nervous System Did You Understand? 12 Key Terms References 17 Alterations of Neurological Function in Children Development of the Nervous System in Children References Structural Malformations Alterations in Function: Encephalopathies Disorders of Coagulation & Thromboembolism Cerebrovascular Disease in Children Childhood Tumours Did You Understand? Key Terms References Unit 5 The Endocrine System 18 Mechanisms of Hormonal Regulation Mechanisms of Hormonal Regulation Structure and Function of the Endocrine Glands Geriatric Considerations Did You Understand? Key Terms References 19 Alterations of Hormonal Regulation 13 Mechanisms of Hormonal Alterations Alterations of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary System Alterations of Thyroid Function Alterations of Parathyroid Function Dysfunction of the Endocrine Pancreas: Diabetes Mellitus Alterations of Adrenal Function Did You Understand? Key Terms References Unit 6 The Hematological System 20 Structure and Function of the Hematological System Components of the Hematological System Development of Blood Cells Mechanisms of Hemostasis Pediatric Considerations Geriatric Considerations Did You Understand? Key Terms References 21 Alterations of Hematological Function Alterations of Erythrocyte Function Myeloproliferative Red Blood Cell Disorders 14 Alterations of Leukocyte Function Alterations of Lymphoid Function Alterations of Splenic Function Hemorrhagic Disorders and Alterations of Platelets and Coagulation Did You Understand? Key Terms References 22 Alterations of Hematological Function in Children Disorders of Erythrocytes Disorders of Coagulation and Platelets Neoplastic Disorders Did You Understand? Key Terms References Unit 7 The Cardiovascular and Lymphatic Systems 23 Structure and Function of the Cardiovascular and Lymphatic Systems The Circulatory System The Heart The Systemic Circulation The Lymphatic System Did You Understand? 15 Key Terms References 24 Alterations of Cardiovascular Function Diseases of the Veins Diseases of the Arteries Disorders of the Heart Wall Manifestations of Heart Disease Shock Did You Understand? Key Terms References 25 Alterations of Cardiovascular Function in Children Congenital Heart Disease Acquired Cardiovascular Disorders Did You Understand? Key Terms References Unit 8 The Pulmonary System 26 Structure and Function of the Pulmonary System Structures of the Pulmonary System Function of the Pulmonary System 16 Geriatric Considerations Did You Understand? Key Terms References 27 Alterations of Pulmonary Function Clinical Manifestations of Pulmonary Alterations Disorders of the Chest Wall and Pleura Pulmonary Disorders Did You Understand? Key Terms References 28 Alterations of Pulmonary Function in Children Disorders of the Upper Airways Disorders of the Lower Airways Sudden Unexpected Infant Death Did You Understand? Key Terms References Unit 9 The Renal and Urological Systems 29 Structure and Function of the Renal and Urological Systems Structures of the Renal System 17 Renal Blood Flow Kidney Function Tests of Renal Function Pediatric Considerations Geriatric Considerations Did You Understand? Key Terms References 30 Alterations of Renal and Urinary Tract Function Urinary Tract Obstruction Urinary Tract Infection Glomerular Disorders Acute Kidney Injury Chronic Kidney Disease Did You Understand? Key Terms References 31 Alterations of Renal and Urinary Tract Function in Children Structural Abnormalities Glomerular Disorders Nephroblastoma Bladder Disorders Urinary Incontinence 18 Did You Understand? Key Terms References Unit 10 The Reproductive Systems 32 Structure and Function of the Reproductive Systems Disorders of Coagulation & Thromboembolism Development of the Reproductive Systems The Female Reproductive System Structure and Function of the Breast The Male Reproductive System Aging and Reproductive Function Did You Understand? Key Terms References 33 Alterations of the Female Reproductive System Abnormalities of the Female Reproductive Tract Alterations of Sexual Maturation Disorders of the Female Reproductive System Disorders of the Female Breast Did You Understand? Key Terms References 19 34 Alterations of the Male Reproductive System Alterations of Sexual Maturation Disorders of the Male Reproductive System References Disorders of the Male Breast Sexually Transmitted Infections Did You Understand? Key Terms References Unit 11 The Digestive System 35 Structure and Function of the Digestive System The Gastro-Intestinal Tract Accessory Organs of Digestion Geriatric Considerations Did You Understand? Key Terms References 36 Alterations of Digestive Function Disorders of the Gastro-Intestinal Tract Disorders of the Accessory Organs of Digestion Cancer of the Digestive System Did You Understand? 20 Key Terms References 37 Alterations of Digestive Function in Children Disorders of the Gastro-Intestinal Tract Disorders of the Liver Gastro-Intestinal Malignancies in Children Did You Understand? Key Terms References Unit 12 The Musculo-skeletal and Integumentary Systems 38 Structure and Function of the Musculo-skeletal System Structure and Function of Bones Structure and Function of Joints Structure and Function of Skeletal Muscles Aging and the Musculo-skeletal System Did You Understand? Key Terms References 39 Alterations of Musculo-skeletal Function Musculo-skeletal Injuries 21 Disorders of Bones Disorders of Joints Disorders of Skeletal Muscle Musculo-skeletal Tumours Did You Understand? Key Terms References 40 Alterations of Musculo-skeletal Function in Children Congenital Defects Bone Infection Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis Osteochondroses Scoliosis Muscular Dystrophy Musculo-skeletal Tumours Nonaccidental Trauma Did You Understand? Key Terms References 41 Structure, Function, and Disorders of the Integument Structure and Function of the Skin Disorders of the Skin Disorders of the Hair 22 Disorders of the Nail Geriatric Considerations Did You Understand? Key Terms References 42 Alterations of the Integument in Children Acne Vulgaris Dermatitis Infections of the Skin Insect Bites and Parasites Cutaneous Hemangiomas and Vascular Malformations Other Skin Disorders Did You Understand? Key Terms References Index Prefixes and Suffixes Used in Medical Terminology Word Roots Commonly Used in Medical Terminology 23 21 Alterations of Hematological Function Anna Schwartz, Kathryn L. McCance, Neal S. Rote, Kelly Power-Kean CHAPTER OUTLINE Alterations of Erythrocyte Function, 520 Classification of Anemias, 520 Macrocytic-Normochromic Anemias, 522 Microcytic-Hypochromic Anemias, 524 Normocytic-Normochromic Anemias, 526 Myeloproliferative Red Blood Cell Disorders, 526 Polycythemia Vera, 526 Iron Overload, 529 Alterations of Leukocyte Function, 529 Quantitative Alterations of Leukocytes, 529 Alterations of Lymphoid Function, 538 Lymphadenopathy, 538 Malignant Lymphomas, 538 Alterations of Splenic Function, 545 1532 Hemorrhagic Disorders and Alterations of Platelets and Coagulation, 546 Disorders of Platelets, 546 Alterations of Platelet Function, Disorders of Coagulation & Thromboembolism 549 Disorders of Coagulation, 550 Alterations of erythrocyte function involve either insufficient or excessive numbers of erythrocytes in the circulation or normal numbers of cells with abnormal components. Anemias are conditions in which there are too few erythrocytes or an insufficient volume of erythrocytes in the blood. Polycythemias are conditions in which erythrocyte numbers or volume is excessive. All of these conditions have many causes and are pathophysiological manifestations of a variety of disease states. Many disorders involving leukocytes range from increased numbers of leukocytes (i.e., leukocytosis) in response to infections to proliferative disorders (such as leukemia). Many hematological disorders are malignancies, and many nonhematological malignancies metastasize to bone marrow, affecting leukocyte production. Thus a large portion of this chapter is devoted to malignant disease. The primary role of clotting (hemostasis) is to stop bleeding through an interaction of endothelium lining the vessels, platelets, and clotting factors. A large number of disease states may be associated with a clinically significant increase or decrease in clotting resulting from alterations in any of the three main 1533 components of the clotting process. Alterations of Erythrocyte Function Classification of Anemias Anemia is a reduction in the total number of erythrocytes in the circulating blood or a decrease in the quality or quantity of hemoglobin. Anemias commonly result from (1) impaired erythrocyte production, (2) blood loss (acute or chronic), (3) increased erythrocyte destruction, or (4) a combination of these three factors. Anemias are classified by their causes (e.g., anemia of chronic disease) or by the changes that affect the size, shape, or substance of the erythrocyte. The most common classification of anemias is based on the changes that affect the cell’s size and hemoglobin content (Table 21-1). Terms used to identify anemias reflect these characteristics. Terms that end with -cytic refer to cell size, and those that end with -chromic refer to hemoglobin content. Additional terms describing erythrocytes found in some anemias are anisocytosis (assuming various sizes) and poikilocytosis (assuming various shapes). TABLE 21-1 Morphological Classification of Anemias Structure of Erythrocytes Macrocytic-normochromic anemia: large, abnormally shaped erythrocytes, normal hemoglobin concentrations Microcytic-hypochromic anemia: small, abnormally shaped erythrocytes and reduced hemoglobin concentration Name and Mechanism of Anemia Pernicious anemia: lack of vitamin B12; abnormal DNA and RNA synthesis in erythroblast; premature cell death Folate deficiency anemia: lack of folate; premature cell death Iron deficiency anemia: lack of iron for hemoglobin; insufficient hemoglobin Sideroblastic anemia: dysfunctional iron uptake by erythroblasts and defective porphyrin and heme synthesis Thalassemia: impaired synthesis of ?- or ?-chain of hemoglobin A; phagocytosis of 1534 Primary Cause Congenital or acquired deficiency of intrinsic factor; genetic disorder of DNA synthesis Dietary folate deficiency Chronic blood loss, dietary iron deficiency, disruption of iron metabolism or iron cycle Congenital dysfunction of iron metabolism in erythroblasts, acquired dysfunction of iron metabolism as result of medications or toxins Congenital genetic defect of globin synthesis abnormal erythroblasts in marrow Normocytic-normochromic Aplastic anemia: insufficient anemia: normal size, erythropoiesis normal hemoglobin Posthemorrhagic anemia: concentration blood loss Hemolytic anemia: premature destruction (lysis) of mature erythrocytes in circulation Sickle cell anemia: abnormal hemoglobin synthesis, abnormal cell shape with susceptibility to damage, lysis, and phagocytosis Anemia of chronic disease; abnormally increased demand for new erythrocytes Depressed stem cell proliferation Increased erythropoiesis; iron depletion Increased fragility of erythrocytes Congenital dysfunction of hemoglobin synthesis Chronic infection or inflammation; malignancy Disorders of Coagulation & Thromboembolism DNA, Deoxyribonucleic acid; RNA, ribonucleic acid. Clinical manifestations The main alteration of anemia is a reduced oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood resulting in tissue hypoxia. Symptoms of anemia vary, depending on the body’s ability to compensate for the reduced oxygen-carrying capacity. Anemia that is mild and starts gradually is usually easier to compensate and may cause problems for the individual only during physical exertion. As red blood cell reduction continues, symptoms become more pronounced and alterations in specific organs and compensation effects are more apparent. Compensation generally involves the cardiovascular, respiratory, and hematological systems (Figure 21-1). 1535 Progression and Manifestations of Anemia. BPG, bisphosphoglycerate; RBC, red blood cell; SV, stroke volume. FIGURE 21-1 A reduction in the number of red blood cells in the blood causes a reduction in the consistency and volume of blood. Initial compensation for cellular loss is movement of interstitial fluid into the blood, causing an increase in plasma volume. This movement maintains an adequate blood volume, but the viscosity (thickness) of the blood decreases. The “thinner” blood flows faster and more turbulently than normal blood, causing a hyperdynamic circulatory state. This hyperdynamic state creates cardiovascular changes— increased stroke volume and heart rate. These changes may lead to cardiac dilation and heart valve insufficiency if the underlying anemic condition is not corrected. Hypoxemia, reduced oxygen level in the blood, further contributes to cardiovascular dysfunction by causing dilation of arterioles, capillaries, and venules, thus increasing flow through them. Increased peripheral blood flow and venous return further contributes to an increase in heart rate and stroke volume in a continuing effort to meet normal oxygen demand and prevent 1536 cardiopulmonary congestion. These compensatory mechanisms may lead to heart failure. Tissue hypoxia creates additional demands and effects on the pulmonary and hematological systems. The rate and depth of breathing increase in an effort to increase oxygen availability accompanied by an increase in the release of oxygen from hemoglobin. All of these compensatory mechanisms may cause individuals to experience shortness of breath (dyspnea), a rapid and pounding heartbeat, dizziness, and fatigue. In mild chronic cases, these symptoms may be present only when there is an increased demand for oxygen (e.g., during physical exertion), but in severe cases, symptoms may be experienced even at rest. Manifestations of anemia may be seen in other parts of the body. The skin, mucous membranes, lips, nail beds, and conjunctivae become either pale because of reduced hemoglobin concentration or yellowish (jaundiced) because of accumulation of end products of red blood cell destruction (hemolysis) if that is the cause of the anemia. Tissue hypoxia of the skin results in impaired healing and loss of elasticity, as well as thinning and early greying of the hair. Nervous system manifestations may occur where the cause of anemia is a deficiency of vitamin B12. Myelin degeneration occurs, causing a loss of nerve fibres in the spinal cord, resulting in paresthesias (numbness), gait disturbances, extreme weakness, spasticity, and reflex abnormalities. Decreased oxygen supply to t … Get a 10 % discount on an order above $ 100 Use the following coupon code : NURSING10