Biology

This week we started learning about evolution. There are several examples in the text about organisms that have evolved. Evolution is fraught with emotion and it can be difficult to discern between fact and opinion. For this week’s discussion, find two articles on evolution, one scientific from a credible source, and one from a questionable source. Please provide links in your post.  Please answer these questions and label 1-4 1.  Which article in your opinion was of more scientific merit? Why?  Be sure to use concrete examples from the articles to support your claims. 2.  Which article was more interesting and captured your attention?  Why?  Again, be sure to use concrete examples from the articles to support your claims. 3.  How do you know which article has information that is correct and based on fact rather than opinion or mis-information? 4.  A compelling argument can sometimes lack scientific merit, what are some strategies you can employ to avoid being “taken in” by a compelling, but not accurate argument? How do you KNOW what you’re reading is true?

Subject Course: Microbiology Describe the cellular source of a Mechanism

Part 1: For this project, you will be gathering information on your chosen primates and doing three, 20-minute primate observations. You will use the same group of animals for each observation. You need to observe for 20 minutes at 3 different times of the day and one of those observations needs to be feeding. This means you will need to make several short observations to determine when feeding occurs. In order for your observations to be fruitful, you need to observe when activity is taking place. So you will need to check in on the webcams often to see what is going on. Observations of chimps sleeping or empty observation areas are not useful and can not be used. I have included an excel spreadsheet for you to record your information. Once you have completed your observations make sure you upload your spreadsheet in the answer area. Primate Observation Worksheet Resources: Some of these resources may not be available. Primate Info Net Ape Cam San Diego Zoo Chimpanzee Window Cam Houston Zoo Gorilla Cam Houston Zoo Snow Monkey Cam KC Zoo Cam Any other that you may find – make sure you add it to your observation sheet What you need to do: Make your observations Fill out your spreadsheet. There are two pages make sure you gather the classification, morphology and locomotion information on your primates on sheet 1. You can use Primate Info Net (also listed above) to help you. Post your spreadsheet Part Two: Write a summary of your observations. This summary is posted with your spreadsheet – in the same post. When writing your summary consider the following: Mother/infant activities. How the design of the exhibit affects social behavior. Grooming cluster (a group of females that groom one another) Play activities engaged in by young animals that teach them skills necessary for adult survival) Playgroup (age-mates that play together) Threat gesture (an action that shows aggression but stops short of a physical attack) Presenting (the act in which a submissive individual positions the anal region toward a dominant individual). Dominance (where one animal displaces another and takes preference over food, sexual access, etc.). Submission (where one animal moves away from or gives up food or space to a dominant animal). Mounting (where a dominant animal mounts a subordinate one). Call (usually a short simple vocalization that transmits a message such as danger). Yawn (not necessarily an expression of boredom, may also be a display of large projecting canines in a threat gesture.) Stare (a simple stare can act as a threat gesture). Lip-smacking (animal opens and closes its lips rapidly with the tongue darting in and out, used as an appeasement gesture by a subordinate animal and can also occur during grooming.) Types of grooming: auto grooming (grooming oneself) allogrooming (grooming another animal) Sexual behavior (where an estrus female presents herself to an interested male for the purpose of sexual activity) Part Three: FOCUS ANIMAL Human Primate Find another primate – this time a human. I recommend using a park on a sunny afternoon for this observation. For the next 15 minutes, observe just one human primate’s behavior, noting who it interacts with, etc. After this pick a second focus human primate and observe it for 15 minutes. Note your data on the spreadsheet (Human 1, Human 2). Write up a summary comparing the behaviors of these two human primates animals. Include it as an additional paragraph in Part 2. how do their behaviors express their differences in regards to sex, age, and dominance? how do their behaviors compare with the non-human primates you observed during part 1 of your observation. Draw a conclusion – this conclusion needs to be based on what you observed (not what you think or feel). Use examples from your observation to support your conclusions. Your conclusion should be a separate paragraph and more than one sentence long. Drawing a conclusion is standard for any research paper. PROPER RESEARCH OUTLINE An introductory paragraph – who, what, why, etc. What is the task you are accomplishing (thesis statement). Next comes your data – in our case observations 3 for the non-humans, 2 for the humans – each as a separate paragraph. This should include as much data as possible. Like the time of day, what you were observing, where you were observing and what you observed. Next is a paragraph explaining what you saw – and or comparing what you saw. NOT – what you think or feel but, just what you saw. No assumptions and personal opinions – neither should be in your paper. Next is your conclusion – based on what you observed! If it wasn’t in your observed data – it should not be in your conclusions. Your conclusions should also be supported by examples from your observations. Don’t overthink this. You not going to come up with something stunning or new – at least not at this point. Just stick with your data. CHECKLIST – for posting RUBRIC You did three 20 minute non-primate observations using the live webcam links – use the same cam for each observation. You filled out both pages of your Excell spreadsheet. Classification and observation. You wrote a summary of your observations for the non-human primates You observed two human primates for 15 minutes each and recorded this information on your spreadsheet. You wrote a summary of your observation comparing the two human activities in terms of age, sex, and dominance. You wrote a summary comparing the activities of the non-human primates and the human primates. You uploaded your spreadsheet properly – only xls or xlsx files will be accepted. If you don’t know how to upload your spreadsheet and assignment check out this link. You included your 3 part summary which should be about 1500 words. This is an attachment and must be saved as a word or pdf. zIt should be uploaded at the same time as your spreadsheet and in the same manner using the ADD Another File button – see the link above. If your assignment is incomplete you will not get full credit. You did your own work – this assignment is checked for plagiarism. look at the files for the example

TOPIC You have to pick an environmental issue that a community, city or province is presently facing in Canada. The issue may be of national significance but it should be discussed from a provincial, city or local community perspective. This is to ensure that you do not pick up a topic that is too broad in scope (I am looking for brevity and depth rather than a high-level overview). Given that environmental issues are often related to multiple other dimensions, e.g., social, economic, political (governance), and ethical, you have to set the context by highlighting all those aspects (as applicable). In addition, while making recommendations on how to tackle the issue, please limit the number of recommendations to your top two recommendations (you may make only one recommendation if you like) but do provide rationale for your recommendations. SUGGESTED STRUCTURE 1. The issue (including potential impacts): what is at stake? Why should we care? 2. Underlying causes: What is/are causing this issue? Provide brief historical overview if relevant. 3. Actions (past/present/future): What has been done to address the issue so far? What can we do now? What are some of the short- and long-term priorities? This about all relevant stakeholders including government, businesses, NGOs, community groups, individuals… 4. Challenges: What are the key challenges to addressing this issue (why is it difficult to solve)? 5. Recommendations: What are your top recommendations (provide justifications)? FORMAT The essay will have a length of no more than 1600 words excluding references. Use 12-point Times Roman font throughout with a line spacing of 1.15. Use a consistent style for layout and citations. Submit the document in MS Word format (do not send a document in PDF or any other format). Provide “in-text” citations; this means mentioning the source whenever you use facts and figures from a published source next to where you quote the information in the document. Also list all quoted sources at the end of the document in the “Reference” section. Do not mention any source not used in your paper (I want you to add a reference, not a bibliography). Use any of the common citation styles consistently (e.g., Chicago, APA, MLA etc.). IMPORTANT Please do not copy and paste sections from existing articles or reports. I expect you to do a thorough research, think about the issue critically, and then write up the report in your own words.

Assignment 2 Endocrine and Cardiovascular Systems Ms. J.S., a 52 yo white female with two children (16 and 14 yo) presents with history of fatigue, weight gain and muscle weakness over past two years. She initially thought it was caused by work stress and busy family life but has also noticed that she bruises more easily than in the past. She also noted purple lines (stretch marks) that you identified as striae. All of the above symptoms have been getting worse. Blood pressure is 170/110, respirations 12/min and some ankle edema (non-pitting) was noted. The limbs seem relatively thin and the trunk thickened, especially between the upper shoulder blades. Diagnosis was made of Cushing disease/syndrome. How could you differentiate between the two? Elevated levels of cortisol has two effects of plasma leading to increased volume: 1) up-regulation of receptors for aldosterone and 2) an increased effectiveness of ADH (either by centrally increasing ADH release or peripherally by increasing the cellular responsiveness). 1). What effects would these two changes (increased responsiveness to aldosterone and ADH) have on Na+, K+ and water levels in the plasma? (Endocrine Mod 3: MO2, MO3, CO2, CO3, CO4) 2). Where does cortisol secretion occur, and thus is a potential site of an over-secreting tumor? How else could someone develop Cushing syndrome if not by a tumor in that area? (Endocrine Mod 3: MO1, MO2, MO3, CO1, CO2, CO3, CO4, CO5) 3). What is the most common cause of Cushing syndrome in the United States? (Endocrine Mod 3: MO1, MO2, MO3, CO1, CO2, CO3, CO4, CO5) A. Adrenal tumors C. Infections B. Pituitary tumors D. Glucocorticoids prescribed by healthcare worker Mr. M.S., an overweight, 55 yo white male presents to your clinic with chest pains. He has a history of hypertension, alcohol use and does not restrict his diet. He is currently taking nitroglycerin tablets as needed for angina. This pain is worse and is not controlled by nitroglycerin. The pain is radiating down his left arm. The pain in the chest feels like pressure or heartburn. You hear inspiratory rales, consistent with pulmonary edema. His blood pressure is 100/75. He begins to have difficulty breathing, especially when lying down. EKG and serum enzymes suggest a left ventricular wall myocardial infarction. Cardiac catheterization reveals a pulmonary wedge pressure of 30 mm Hg (normal, 5 mm Hg) and two-dimensional echocardiography measured an ejection fraction of 0.35 (normal, 0.55). In the Coronary ICU, he was treated with thrombolytic agents (tPA), digitalis (a positive inotropic agent) and furosemide (Lasix, a loop diuretic) 4). What measures above helped you determine that the stroke volume (considering the measures that factor into it) was reduced? (Cardiovascular Alterations Mod 5: MO7, MO9, MO10, MO12, MO17, CO2, CO3, CO4, CO5) 5). Describe the mechanism of how digitalis (AKA Oubain) works at a molecular level to increase contractility (positive inotrope)? Discuss the ion gradients, how they were created/maintained for a cell at resting membrane potential and the effects of this drug that lead to its action (rise in what ion and where) on muscle contraction. (Cardiovascular Structure and Function Mod4: MO2, MO6, MO7, MO9, MO11, CO1, CO2, CO3) 6). Statins are commonly used to treat cardiovascular disease. Describe their effect and the mechanism of how that effect is brought about. Explain if men and women with similar cholesterol profiles are at similar risk for cardiovascular disease (i.e. are they equally predictive of cardiovascular risk for men and women). Supply a link to an article that supports your assertion and in a sentence or two, describe the “take home point(s)” of the article (Cardiovascular Structure and Function Mod 5: MO1, MO5, MO7, MO8, MO9 CO1, CO2, CO3) 7). Supply one link/web address/citation to an article (different from above article) that describes differences in either gender or race in the treatment or assessment of risk for cardiovascular disease and a statement of how that information will affect your assessment/treatment of patients in practice.

For your final project you will be researching a case study from the list provided and you will write a paper based off of your research. The paper will be written using the questions that are listed in the prompt for the case study that you have selected. Your paper should be 4-6 pages long. Write your paper in Microsoft Word and format it according to APA standards. Please review the Guidelines for APA Style found in the APA Requirements link in the left sidebar found in Blackboard. Include APA citations from a minimum of three academic sources, and have a title page and reference page. Case Study 1: Asthma and Allergies Asthma is an inflammatory disease of the lungs in which the patient’s airways become temporarily constricted, making breathing difficult. Although the condition was virtually unknown in the early 1900s, today it affects 20.3 million people in the United States and kills 5,000 of them per year. From 1980 to 1994, the prevalence of asthma increased 75%. Asthma rates in children under the age of 5 have increased more than 160% in the same time period. The exact reason for the increased prevalence of asthma is not known, but the following observations offer clues: ? Asthma “attacks” can be triggered by the common cold, exercise, cold air, emotional stress, viral infections, aspirin, industrial air pollutants, smoking, obesity, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide. ? Having two parents with asthma increases a child’s chances of having the disease. Approximately 40% of children who have asthmatic parents also develop asthma. ? The disease tends to cluster in England and English-speaking countries. ? Exposure of children to dust mites, cats, cockroaches, molds, and mildews increases their chances of getting the disease. ? Children who are exposed to common parasites seem to have a better-developed immune system than children not exposed to parasites. These exposed children do not suffer asthma as frequently. ? Exposure to occupational agents such as dyes may trigger the onset of adult asthma. ? Poverty seems to be a substantial risk factor for the development of asthma. Assignment Case Study 1: Asthma and Allergies Write a 4-6 page paper incorporating answers to the following questions 1. Research the relationship between asthma and allergies. Describe how various agents trigger asthma or an asthma attack. How have the factors that trigger an asthma attack changed since the 1900s? As a researcher, how would you put together the clues given here to explain the emerging epidemic? 2. Find out where in the world asthma is least prevalent, and hypothesize why this is so. 3. Define the word “epidemiology.” How do researchers use epidemiology to study a disease such as asthma? 4. Visit the CDC website on asthma at http://www.cdc.gov/asthma/default.htm and research the National Asthma Control Program. Find the name and address of agencies in your state (VA) that the CDC has funded to fight asthma

Extra Credit Assignment             1. List three reasons protein is needed by the body.   2. How often must individuals replenish themselves with protein. Why?   3. What happens to excessive amounts of protein?   4. Why can protein take the place of carbohydrates and fats?   5. Explain why carbohydrates and fats cannot take the place of protein.   6. The 6 best sources of protein for optimum health are:   7.  What are amino acids?   8.  There are how many essential amino acids that are necessary for good human health and nutrition?   9.  Why do we need to eat a variety of protein type foods?   10.  Insufficient protein in the diet may manifest itself in several ways. Name at least three:

In this assignment, you will focus on the impact of COVID-19 on the selected operation. You will critically discuss the operation’s response to the global pandemic and focus on, at least, one aspect of the operation’s design and/or planning and control. Respond to the follow comments and questions with the attached document. Operations Performance using academic models: discuss operations improvement after, and before COVID-19 pandemic. What tools (6 Sigma, Lean, ishikawa, FMEA,  perhaps) do you employ to help you make decisions? I.e. for Problem solving, continuous improvement. What kind of key performance indicators do you monitor and what tools do you use to report them? I.e. control charts, polar diagrams, etc…Can you provide a snapshot of your kpi dashboard? In terms of resources management, has Covid altered performance measurement within your organization? Operations Design and Planning and Control: Focus on:  at least one element of operation design and planning and control to explain how the company has adjusted its operation to deal with the implications of COVID-19 pandemic. The elements of operations planning and control may include inventory management, capacity and demand management, materials planning, Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), MRP, and supply chain management.  In light of your discussion of the operations strategy, critically assess the different design and planning and control elements of the selected operation. In light of the operational framework, how has the shift in productivity requirements help you modify the current operational design? Has Covid 19 warranted the implementation of a new design?

Bones are the individual organs that make up the skeletal system, and muscles are the organs that hold those bones, and us, upright and together. There are 206 bones in the adult skeleton, and more than 700 muscles in the human body. For the Unit 3 discussion, think about a particular bone or muscle in the human body. What is its structure? How does its structure allow the body to do a particular thing? For example, how does the structure of our arm bones allow us to do handstands? Are there any muscles involved? What do they do?

Instructions for research paper   1)There should be a title page – or at least minimally there should be a paper title, your name and the course name should be on it at the top of the first page of the research paper.  Following the title, your name, etc., there should be an introduction section (approximately a paragraph or two), the main body of your paper and then a conclusion section (at least a paragraph or two). The paper should be approximately 4-5 pages in length, not including the title page or bibliography.  This will be described further a little later on in this document.                                                                                                          2) Make sure there is a bibliography section (i.e. list of references a.k.a. works cited) at the end and there should really be more than 4 to 5 references that are peer-reviewed references (or at least highly valid sites like the government’s CDC site or the UN’s WHO site) (NOT including your text book and lab manual).  Wikipedia as a reference for text of this paper is NOT acceptable.  If using a website from an organization such as the WHO, you need to provide specific URL (website) information for the particular page or subsection you looked at and technically you are also supposed to provide the date when you accessed the site.  Do not just say that you used a “CDC” or WHO” site (and 2 WHO sites [or 2 CDC sites as a 2nd example] do not count as 2 independent sites because the first site could be a “home page” directing you to the other site – even 2 content-related WHO sites coming from the same home page will not count [or CDC sites as a 2nd example]).  At least one of your references should be a review article on the subject from a peer-reviewed journal such as Emerging Infectious Diseases or a research article from a journal such as Journal of Bacteriology.  Read the entire article – do not just use the abstract. Copies of your references should be turned in with the final version of the paper as above^ (or at least the most useful pages from your references so I can verify the use of its content.) a)How to format your references: (In reality, there are several different styles regarding creation of a bibliography.  Many of you had exposure to APA and / or MLA style. The style I am providing below is what many scientists use: CBE / CSE, which share many similarities with APA and MLA.  It is all right with me if you want to continue using APA or MLA style, because the same basic information is included regardless of style (the differences are in the organization of that information).  I am mostly concerned with you [the student] demonstrating to me that you know how to do citations properly and know how to generate an appropriate bibliography / reference section / work cited list.) i)An example of an appropriate reference from the internet website would be:  United States Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Updated on Jan. 9, 2008. Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) 2005 Case Definition. National Notifiable Disease Surveillance System.  Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncphi/disss/nndss/nndsshis.htm , accessed 3/28/08. (= Ref. 1).   ii) You may also be using journal articles and a sample reference would look like Trachman, J.D., Yasmin, M. 2004.Thermo-osmoregulation of heat labile enterotoxin expression by Escherichia coli. Current Microbiology 49:353-60.  (= Ref. 2) iii) NY Times articles, etc. may also be used.  An example of this way this type of article would be referenced: Murphy K. Concern Mounts as Bacteria Resistant to Antibiotics Disperse Widely.  NY Times, published Aug. 22, 2006. (= Ref. 3) iv)Also, you should be using your textbook and the textbook should also be referenced (as many of you were doing for your lab reports and other writing assignments).  One way to reference your textbook would be: Tortora, G.J., Funke, B.R., Case, C.L. 2007. Microbiology: An Introduction (Ed. 9). Pearson: Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco, CA. (= Ref. 4) IMPORTANT: For this project, do NOT use sites like WIKIPEDIA for the text content of this paper  or for the poster. b) Example of how to carry out citations in a text: E. coli, in many cases, is completely harmless and is commonly found as a commensal of the GI tract (Tortora et al., 2007); however, as we know from reading the NY Times articles on enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) (Murphy, 2006) as well as what the professor described about her published research on enterotoxigenic E. coli  (Trachman and Yasmin, 2004) sometimes infection of the GI tract by certain strains of E. coli can lead to disease in human beings.  Many of these organisms pick up traits characteristic of more virulent microorganisms that often cause disease in the GI tract, such as EHEC picking up virulence factors from shigella species that cause dysentery (http://www.cdc.gov/EPO/dphsi/casedef/shiga_current.htm). Alternatively: E. coli, in many cases, is completely harmless and is commonly found as a commensal of the GI tract (4); however, as we know from reading the NY Times articles on enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) (3) as well as what the professor described about her published research on enterotoxigenic E. coli  (2) sometimes infection of the GI tract by certain strains of E. coli can lead to disease in human beings.  Many of these organisms pick up traits characteristic of more virulent microorganisms that often cause disease in the GI tract, such as EHEC picking up virulence factors from shigella species that cause dysentery (1). c)When you turn in your paper, you need to submit photocopies of your reference material (or at least key pages from each reference) (with the exceptions of: textbook & lab manual). These documents should be in a section labeled APPENDIX I. 3) Wherever you cite other individuals’ words or ideas or information that is NOT common knowledge, there should be a citation.  A citation is an indication that these thoughts, words, information, etc. are someone else’s – these can be done as endnotes rather than footnotes.  The citations can be numbered i.e. 1, 2, etc. with the complete information at the end in a bibliography (work cited) section correlating to the numbers used in the text. 4) However, a lot of the text of this assignment should really be your own words – you should be paraphrasing – this means that much of the text should not be someone else’s exact words.  However, regardless, wherever there is an exact quote or a paraphrase containing information that is NOT your own (and most of what you are writing about, is NOT gong to be common knowledge), there needs to be a citation.  If you are using an exact quote, the words should be enclosed in quotation marks, i.e. “The exact quotation should be in quotation marks as is occurring with this sentence.” 5) This paper should not consist of “piecing” together long passages of other people’s texts nor should it be minor little rearrangements of these other people’s texts, or minor little rewording of these other people’s texts.  There should be a logical flow to the information you are providing in your chosen words.   6)  This is not to say that you can not use someone else’s ideas (or information gathered from  them) at all.  However, the other person’s words/ ideas do need to be cited properly.  In academic circles, it is perfectly acceptable to use someone else’s ideas or information from their work as long as it is attributed to the original owner of the ideas or information.  Furthermore, by performing a thorough search of the “literature” and properly attributing the ideas or information, it makes the writer look more learned and “diligent” in carrying out the assigned task. 7)Another example of where you should be inserting your own thoughts is at the end of the paper. What are your thoughts? What do you feel you learned by writing the paper?  8) You may choose to write a slightly lengthier paper.  If you decide to go beyond the 4 to 5 page minimum, among the items that could be included would be a small introductions with some more thoughts in your own words.   9)Some other brief reminders about the paper:   a) The length is a minimum of 4 complete to 5 pages and the type should be double-spaced.  If your paper is 4 complete pages, your bibliography section should be on the 5th page. If your paper is 5 pages long, then the bibliography section can still be on the 5th page. The paper length of 4 to 5 pages does not include figures, tables, etc.  If you include this type of information, refer to it in your text and include it in an appendix at the end of the document.  These may be some of the figures, tables, etc. used in your poster presentation.  These will be in APPENDIX 2.   b) You should be using text in the range of 10 to 12 font size. c)There should be the standard 1 inch margins on the left, right, top and bottom borders. Note: Your paper is being judged on content as well as your ability to demonstrate information  literacy.   A)You need to use appropriate resources and they should be properly documented (see above). B)You need to properly cite in the text of your paper (to give attribution to the authors who provided with the content of your paper).  Instructions are provided above.  Use MLA, APA or style provided in this document.  The information is similar but maybe arranged differently. C)You need to have a “proper” bibliography / references list / work cited list.  The references should be correctly referenced (format to some extent is less important than content – use MLA, APA or the style given to you in this handout (the information expectations are similar, but information is arranged slightly differently). D)The content needs to be accurate and you need to attempt to put some of the information in your own words (i.e. paraphrase). I will reward you for the attempt if done with some degree of accuracy. Put quotation marks around exact quotes.  Plagiarism is not acceptable. E)Make some attempt at using academic English.  Please go to the Writing Center for help if you feel the need. Also submission of a rough draft a week or so before it is due would be a wise move so you can get feedback from me. F)Go to the library workshops for help regarding finding resources, regarding plagiarism, etc. if you need a refresher. Many of you have taken these workshops for your English classes. Some instructions/ guidelines for writing about a specific microorganism on a specific microorganism regarding global climate change 1)In the introduction, write a discussion as to why your chosen microorganism is associated with the problem of global warming/ global climate change..  What is the microorganism’s host range?  Is it restricted to humans?  Is it transmitted directly or indirectly – or both? Does it require a vehicle or vector for transmission?  Does it have a preferred portal of entry i.e. does it matter how it enters the human body with respect to its ability to cause infection or disease?  What is the microorganism’s reservoir?  Can it be found as a commensal of the human being?  Is it part of the normal human flora?  Can there be carriers?  Is the microorganism only found in certain parts of the world? Certain climates? Certain types of local environments? 2) In the main body of the paper, there are several subsections to be considered (which might overlap in content to a certain extent with the introduction).   a) Type of Microorganism:  What kind of microorganism is it?  Is it bacterial, viral, fungal.  You should discuss your organism somewhat.  If it is viral, fungal, etc. you may have to do a little extra reading in one of the non-assigned chapters like Chap. 13 on viruses and Chap. 12 on Fungi, Protozoa, etc.  Also, Chap. 21-26 on specific diseases and microorganisms may contain useful information. b) Epidemiology:  How is this organism transmitted to human beings?  Is this related to points discussed above?  Where is this microorganism normally found in the environment – the microorganism might even be typically associated with human beings but we did not necessarily know about it until recently?   Has human behavior or environmental conditions changed to cause this microorganism to now cause human disease?  Has the microorganism evolved (changed at the genetic level) to become more pathogenic or more easily transmissible to humans, etc.?  Is the microorganism considered to be contagious (communicable)?  c) Disease and virulence factors:  What kind of disease(s) is this organism associated with in human beings? What is known about its virulence factors?  Is there anything particularly interesting in the way the microorganism interacts with the human immune system (this point relates to the virulence of the microorganism)?  Does the organism cause acute /chronic/ subacute/ latent infections?  Are the infections sporadic in the human population or is there potential for the microorganism to cause epidemics or even pandemics?  Does the microorganism cause disease in the human being as a primary infection or does it cause problems because it sets the stage for secondary infections? d) Detection/diagnosis: Is this organism easy to diagnose / detect in humans? In their natural environment? How easy is the microorganism to grow in the laboratory? Study in the laboratory?  Why or why not? e)Treatment: If disease by the microorganism is treated, describe how?  Can we use antibiotics or other drugs?   Why or why not?  Are there problems with drug resistance? f)Prevention: If disease by the organism is preventable, describe how?  Here we are referring to several considerations:   a) Is there a vaccine available?  Is it widely used?  Are there problems with the vaccine or with making it widely available?   b) If the vaccine is not used widely, explain why?  If there are other problems with the vaccine explain (there may even be societal issues involved).   g)Breaking the chain of transmission: Are there other options with disease prevention by this organism?  How about breaking the chain of transmission?  This might require thinking about disinfection, etc. or changing human / animal behavior / pesticide use / other environmental considerations.  3)Conclusion: Provide a summary statement regarding your infectious disease agent regarding its association with global warming. Please focus on your microorganism in its particular context.  In some cases it may be particular strains or serovars  Note: Lists are provided in a separate document.